Child-Rearing Among the Mường Ethnic People of Vietnam: Cultural Practices, Parenting Techniques, and Traditional Beliefs

Introduction

Child-rearing is a central element in sustaining and transmitting cultural identity among ethnic communities. For the Mường people, one of Vietnam’s largest and most distinctive indigenous groups, the process of raising children embodies a tapestry of rituals, beliefs, and practices rooted in centuries of communal life and interaction with the natural environment. This article explores how the Mường community raises its youngest members, examining childbirth rituals, postpartum confinement, naming ceremonies, feeding and carrying practices, protective beliefs, the role of ritual specialists, and the impact of modernity. Drawing from Vietnamese and English-language scientific references, ethnographies, and video documentation, it seeks to capture both the enduring traditions and evolving realities of Mường child-rearing in the 21st century.

1. The Mường People: Context and Identity

The Mường reside primarily in northern Vietnam, with large populations found in the provinces of Hòa Bình, Thanh Hóa, Phú Thọ, and Sơn La 1 2. Their culture is shaped by communal village (quel) life, adherence to ancestral worship, and an animistic worldview where spirits, deities, and nature play vital roles. Family, for the Mường, is not just a nuclear unit but part of an extended kinship network that underpins child socialization and protection 3.

Understanding how the Mường raise children thus demands appreciation for the interwoven social, spiritual, and ecological dimensions of their lives. Children are considered a blessing and a sign of familial strength, and child-rearing is imbued with rituals and taboos that reflect both indigenous Mường beliefs and broader Vietnamese influences.

2. Traditional Childbirth Rituals Among the Mường

2.1. Prenatal Beliefs and Taboos

Mường women continue working during pregnancy but avoid heavy labor, lifting high objects, or strenuous activities that could risk miscarriage 4 5. Emotional disposition is carefully managed: pregnant mothers are instructed to stay cheerful, avoid anger, and eschew terrifying, tragic, or emotionally charged spectacles, as these may negatively influence the fetus’ health and spirit.

Dietary taboos are strictly observed. Pregnant Mường women avoid:

• Conjoined fruits (to prevent twins or birth abnormalities)
• Meat from dead animals (to avoid hemorrhage and ill health)
• Shellfish and certain vegetables that are believed to cause excessive saliva or deformities in children
• Water stored in bamboo tubes with angled cuts, believed to cause cleft palate
• Attending funerals or weddings, which risks negative spiritual influence ^{4 6}

This careful orchestration of the physical and spiritual environment during pregnancy reflects the belief that both the mother and father’s actions directly affect the unborn child.

2.2. Labor and Birthing Rituals

Mường births traditionally take place at the husband’s home, next to the hearth. If the woman must give birth at her parents’ home, specific rules apply: she may only deliver below the stilt house, never inside, to prevent “foreign blood” from contaminating the family space⁶.

During labor, a ritual called "Quán Ma" is enacted— a rope is tied between the stairway and the “Tẳng Dẳng” post, festooned with a broom and sickle to bar evil spirits or inauspicious visitors from entering the house and to shield the newborn from illness and spiritual harm⁵. The kitchen is cleaned, and banana leaves are prepared to receive the infant.

Key ritual acts at birth include:

• Gentle tapping of the newborn’s head: For boys, struck with a fishing net weight seven times with the phrase, “Grow up to fish;” for girls, struck nine times with a rice steaming basket, accompanied by, “Grow up to pick mulberries and weave cloth.”
• Cutting the umbilical cord with a bamboo knife sourced from the front or back house beam, depending on the baby’s gender— front for boys, back for girls, invoking gendered spatial symbolism.
• Bathing the newborn and placing it upon fire-warmed banana leaves, a practice called “rùng cóong,” believed to comfort and spiritually integrate the child.
• Securing the placenta in a bamboo tube and hanging it in a secluded forest area, to ensure the spirit’s safety²⁵.

Video illustration: Phong tục sinh đẻ của người Mường (Vietnamese-language ethnographic account, with visual documentation)

These rituals underscore an understanding of birth as not merely a biological event, but a spiritual juncture necessitating guardianship and careful mediation between the realms of the living and the spirits.

3. Postpartum Confinement and Maternal Care

3.1. Confinement Practices

After childbirth, the mother remains “ở cữ” (in confinement), typically by the hearth, for a period that varies according to the birth order— one month for first-borns, 15–20 days for subsequent children⁶. She is provided with protective boundaries: blankets form a curtained enclosure and a red chili pepper branch or thorny branch is affixed to the stairway to signal outsiders not to enter.

During this time, strangers, pregnant women, and those in mourning are strictly forbidden to visit, as their “vía” (spiritual essence) is believed to threaten maternal and infant well-being. The mother is also accompanied by a knife, both as a practical tool and a spiritual safeguard.

Confinement incorporates a period of ritual rest, dietary restriction, and a focus on warmth, paralleling postpartum practices in other Southeast Asian traditions, such as lying by the fire among the Thai or Chinese “zuo yue zi”— reflecting the trans-regional logic of “hot-cold” health balances⁷².

3.2. Maternal Nutrition, Herbal Medicine, and Recovery

The immediate postpartum diet is austere: mothers eat sticky rice cooked in bamboo tubes (“cơm lam”) with salt, occasionally augmented by herbal broths or chicken cooked with ginger and turmeric⁵⁸⁹. This food is believed both to promote recovery and milk production, while also being spiritually “clean” and restorative.

Herbal medicine is a crucial part of this regime. Decoctions of forest leaves, such as ramie root or specific local plants, are consumed to ward off infection, cleanse residual blood, and foster uterine contraction. After seven or nine days, the mother may undergo herbal steam baths to further promote healing and “sweat out” residual coldness. These traditional treatments are maintained even today in parallel with modern medical practices, and are viewed as important cultural assets by community health experts⁹¹⁰.

3.3. Ceremonies Ending Confinement

Special ceremonies mark the end of postpartum confinement:

• "Kéo chiếu" Ceremony (4th day): A pig or chicken is sacrificed; guests bring gifts for a celebratory meal. On this day, the “Quán Ma” cord is removed.
• "Thả ổ" (Release from Nest, 7th/9th day): Offerings to the kitchen gods and midwife spirits, the symbolic removal of confinement boundaries, and ritual cleansing signal reintegration into everyday life. In Phú Thọ, a special bamboo “midwife umbrella” is hung above the bed to commemorate the birth and, if the child passes, the umbrella is buried with them⁵.

 4. Naming Ceremonies and Rituals of Spiritual Integration

The act of naming a Mường child is enveloped in ritual and serves as both a social and spiritual passage. Prior to “Đầy tháng” (full month, i.e., one month after birth), children are typically called unattractive nicknames (e.g., "thằng cu" for boys, "cái cún" for girls) to mislead malevolent spirits and avoid attracting ill fortune⁵¹¹.

4.1. Full-Month and Naming Ceremony

The “Lễ đầy tháng” is a major ritual that both introduces the child to the ancestors and community and bestows an official name. Key ritual details include:

• Presentation of the child at the ancestral altar with offerings (pig, rooster, rice wine), expressing gratitude to ancestors, midwives, and household gods.
• Gifts from kin, such as handmade cloths, chickens, sticky rice, and, notably, silver or gold bracelets, which double as protective amulets and tokens of well-wishing¹²¹³.
• Naming by the paternal grandparents, always ensuring the name does not duplicate existing family names.
• Placement of ritual items (mirror, comb, knife, bowl of water, cup of tea) beside the infant, each preventing specific misfortunes: the knife deters illness, the water forestalls drowning, and the tea guards against poisoning.

After this ceremony, parents are traditionally identified as “the mother/father of [child’s name]”— a practice that emphasizes the child’s centrality and social legitimacy in the lineage⁵¹¹.

Video Documentation

• Lễ đầy tháng của người Mường tại Hòa Bình (YouTube Video)

5. Protective Beliefs, Charms, and Amulets

Protection of infants from spiritual harm is central to the Mường paradigm of child-rearing. Various ritual objects, amulets, and charms are employed:

• Red and white threads are tied to the baby’s wrist during ceremonies, ritually “charged” by the shaman (thầy mo)— seven loops for boys, nine for girls. This act is thought to safeguard against evil spirits and illness.
• Charms and jewelry, such as silver or gold bangles, are gifted by grandparents for both their spiritual shielding and cultural significance¹²².
• The "Quán Ma" cord with broom and sickle continues to serve as a physical and spiritual barrier immediately after birth; the placenta’s burial in the forest ensures the child’s spirit remains undisturbed⁵.
• Vòng tay trầm hương (Agarwood bracelets) and herbal amulets are sometimes used, believed to ward off “bad wind,” ensure restful sleep, and enhance resilience against illness¹³.

These acts are not simply ritual formality; they are preventative health strategies, blending animistic understandings with lived experience in environments historically rife with disease and high infant mortality²¹².

 6. The Mo Shaman and Spiritual Ceremonies

Mường ritual specialists, known as "thầy mo," are indispensable figures in childbirth, postpartum, and naming rites⁵¹⁴². They are called on to conduct:

• Ceremonies invoking the midwife spirits, kitchen gods, and ancestors.
• Chanting and blessing sessions that empower protective items, like the red thread or silver bracelets.
• Community rituals (e.g., “Thay ma cữ”), in which a virtuous woman and older children symbolically pass on experience and “good vía” (spirit) to the newborn.

These shamanic rites often incorporate passages from the epic "Đẻ đất đẻ nước" (Giving Birth to Earth and Water), which resonates throughout Mường cosmology and connects individual life cycles to a collective mythic origin².

Video illustration: "Mo Muong" Ritual Overview (Vietnam News Agency)

7. Babywearing, Swaddling, and Daily Care

7.1. Babywearing and Swaddling

While detailed descriptions are somewhat scarce in the literature, ethnographic sources indicate that Mường mothers traditionally carry infants in woven baskets called “gùi,” worn over the back and secured with straps across the forehead or shoulders². These practical carriers allow mothers to perform agricultural or household tasks while keeping their babies close, reflecting both ergonomic and developmental awareness. Contemporary medical perspectives corroborate the developmental benefits of babywearing, including improved bonding, reduced crying, better temperature regulation, and enhanced sensory stimulation¹⁵.

Resource: Babywearing 101: Benefits and Techniques (HappyPreggie)

Swaddling usually involves wrapping the infant in cloths or blankets, sometimes laying the child on warm banana leaves (“rùng cóong”), creating both physical comfort and symbolic protection.

7.2. Infant Feeding Practices

Breastfeeding is the default and preferred feeding practice among the Mường, with mothers encouraged to initiate nursing after the newborn’s first cry and maternal recovery¹⁶¹⁷. Rites may involve symbolic feeding (for example, giving a newborn chewed rice, as among the Thai-Muong, to stimulate abundance), but exclusive breastfeeding is valued for its health and immune benefits.

Complementary feeding begins early, sometimes as soon as 4-6 months, with chewed rice, rice porridge, or broths—reflecting subsistence patterns and food availability. Ethnographic research shows that the prevalence of early initiation of breastfeeding is relatively high among the Mường (over 69%), but exclusive breastfeeding rates are lower than for Vietnamese Kinh mothers, indicating room for improvement in infant nutrition¹⁶¹⁷.

Comparative Feeding Practice Table:

Group	Breastfeeding Initiation <1hr	Exclusive BF (<6mo)	Bottle Feeding	Minimum Acceptable Diet
Kinh	~50%	18%	~33%	75%
Thai-Muong	69%	10%	~20%	33%
E De-Mnong	~50%	33%	~20%	46%
Tay-Nung	~50%	17%	~33%	52%

[Adapted from BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth][43†source]

Discussion:
Although Mường families value breastfeeding, economic insecurity, lower access to professional advice, and early return to work may limit adherence to WHO recommendations. Nutritional interventions tailored to local conditions, and incorporating community knowledge, are essential to address malnutrition and stunting, which remain disproportionately high among Mường children compared to national averages¹⁸.

7.3. Infant Health and Safety

Ritual and practical measures are taken to prevent exposure to cold (which is widely seen as a health threat), “dirty” air, and supernatural harm. Herbal medicine remains common for treating childhood illness, with ramie root, bamboo leaf, and local botanicals used for fevers, digestive complaints, and skin infections—sometimes in conjunction with modern health services⁹.

8. Socio-Anthropological and Familial Structures

8.1. The Family as a Social Unit

Mường society is structured around extended patrilineal families, with sibling bonds and kinship reinforced by shared rituals and inheritance patterns. Elder siblings assist in child-rearing and socialization, learning-by-doing within a context where both gendered labor division and collective responsibility for children prevail³.

Discipline tends to be gentle, focusing on modeling and example rather than corporal punishment. Boys are gradually socialized into hunting, fishing, and field tasks, while girls receive instruction in household management and craft—though these norms are becoming more flexible amidst modernization.

8.2. Community Roles and Gender Dynamics

Communal participation in childbirth, naming, and protective rituals highlights the role of neighbors and extended family in child-rearing. While some gender biases persist (sons are still valued for status and ritual responsibility), there is growing interest in gender equality, especially as educational attainment and economic opportunities expand among Mường women¹⁸.

Government and faith-based organizations—such as the Lovers of the Holy Cross in Lac Son—are increasingly involved in supplementing traditional support networks by providing dormitory schooling, health care, and moral education for poor and rural Mường children, particularly girls¹⁹.

 9. Modern Adaptations, Community Programs, and Health Outcomes

9.1. Modern Healthcare and Ritual Adaptation

As Vietnam’s health infrastructure evolves, more Mường families make use of hospitals and clinical prenatal care; however, traditional practices persist in parallel. Even when deliveries occur in hospitals, Mường families may retrieve the placenta to perform forest burial rituals, or organize “Quán Ma” cordons and midwife ceremonies at home⁵¹⁰.

Public and non-governmental health interventions now strive for cultural competence: training local midwives in both modern obstetrics and traditional customs, using pictorial leaflets, and developing ethnographically informed video resources for community education¹⁰.

Resource:

• Mother care and baby care in Vietnam: Market report, modern adaptations and hybrid parenting styles (Cimigo, 2025)

9.2. Nutrition, Malnutrition, and Community Health

National surveys show persistently higher rates of stunting and underweight children among minor ethnic groups, including the Mường, compared to the Kinh majority. These disparities are partly attributable to subsistence agriculture, reduced dietary diversity, and difficult geographic access to health services¹⁸¹⁷. Modern programs recommend:

• School-based nutrition interventions
• Community health education that integrates Mường-language materials
• Parental participation in school food programs
• Routine vaccination and micronutrient supplementation

9.3. Mental Health, Postpartum Depression, and Maternal Support

Emerging research identifies mental health and emotional adjustment as important, yet under-recognized, aspects of postpartum care in Vietnam, including among the Mường²⁰. Traditional beliefs often lead women experiencing postpartum depression to consult fortune-tellers or apply herbal and ritual solutions, underscoring the need for culturally respectful mental health screening and follow-up services.

10. Comparative Perspective: Mường and Other Ethnic Child-Rearing Practices

The Mường “thay ma cữ” ritual— where a virtuous woman and older children “lead” the newborn into community— is unique and illustrates the blending of individual, familial, and communal responsibility for child upbringing. In contrast, Kinh naming and postpartum ceremonies are more nuclear, while other ethnic minorities, such as the Hmong or Thai, may emphasize different protective and developmental rituals¹¹⁷.

Cross-cultural studies across Mardin (Turkey), China, and Laos reveal profound variation in beliefs about umbilical cord care, swaddling, herbal medicine, and the social meaning of the mother’s postpartum seclusion⁷. These comparisons highlight both the local distinctiveness and universal themes— kin, nurture, ritual protection, and adaptation to ecological realities— in child-rearing across ethnic boundaries.

Ethnographic film: Bathing a Nomadic Baby: Traditional Motherhood Rituals (YouTube, illustrative of trans-Eurasian nomadic traditions)

 11. Conclusion

The Mường approach to raising young babies is a vibrant expression of Vietnam’s ethnocultural diversity. By blending spiritual beliefs, familial duty, and a pragmatic adaptation to rural life, Mường child-rearing epitomizes both continuity and transformation. Traditional childbirth and infant care rituals— from the Quán Ma cord to the naming ceremony, red-thread blessings, herbal medicines, and community mentorship— continue to be valued, even as modernization, state policy, and global health norms reshape daily practice.

In an era of rapid social change, safeguarding these ritual frameworks and adapting them to new health and educational realities is critical not only for the well-being of individual Mường children, but also for the survival of communal identity and intergenerational solidarity. Promoting maternal and child health among the Mường requires recognizing the value of these cultural systems, engaging community knowledge, and ensuring that modern interventions respect and reinforce— rather than supplant— the wisdom of tradition.

 

Embedded Video and Multimedia Resources

• Phong tục sinh đẻ của người Mường | Vietnamese video documentation
• Mo Muong (Muong Soul Seeker) Ritual | Vietnam News Agency
• Lễ đầy tháng của người Mường tại Hòa Bình (Demonstration of the full-month ceremony)
• Bathing a Nomadic Baby: Traditional Motherhood Rituals Uncovered

 

Analytical Summary Table: Key Elements of Mường Child-Rearing

Practice Domain	Mường Tradition	Scientific/Comparative Insight
Pregnancy Taboos	Avoid heavy labor, strong emotions, specific foods, funerals/weddings	Ensures physical safety, spiritual purity
Birth Rituals	Quán Ma, gendered umbilical cutting, symbolic tapping, placenta burial	Spiritual integration, gender socialization
Postpartum Confinement	7-30 days by the hearth, limited visitors, protective symbols	"Hot" therapy aligns with broader SE Asian health concepts
Maternal Diet and Herbal Medicine	Sticky rice, chicken with ginger/turmeric, forest herbs, lam-cooked food	Promotes lactation, recovery; risk of nutritional gaps without modernization
Naming Ceremonies	Lễ đầy tháng, unattractive nicknames, ancestor offerings, ritual objects	Combines social registration, spiritual protection
Protective Measures	Red/white thread, silver/gold bracelets, herbal amulets, Quán Ma, placenta burial	Shields from illness and "bad luck," reinforces communal bonds
Mo Rituals and Community Involvement	Thay ma cữ, blessings from elder women and children, shamanic prayers	Ritual inclusion fosters socialization and resilience
Babywearing and Swaddling	Gùi baskets, warm cloths/banana leaves	Endorsed by modern ergonomic and sensory development research
Infant Feeding	Early breastfeeding, sometimes chewed rice, exclusive BF suboptimal, early complementary foods	Nutrition and stunting remain concerns; support needed for EBF
Comparative Practices	Unique rituals compared to Kinh, overlap in Southeast Asian "hot-cold" postpartum logic	Regional diversity; common gender and kinship themes
Modern Directions	Hospital births, retrieval of placenta, integration of health education and community programs	Culturally competent interventions essential

This article, grounded in interdisciplinary research and enriched by ethnographic and scientific references, aims to serve as an authoritative resource for understanding the wealth and complexity of Mường child-rearing practices.

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